Political status and decolonisation

History of the Western Sahara question

From Spanish colonial rule and the 1975 crisis, through war, the UN settlement plan and competing proposals, to renewed hostilities and negotiations in 2025–2026.

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Spanish Sahara and decolonisation

Western Sahara lies on the north-west coast of Africa. It was a Spanish protectorate from 1884, and in 1963 it was placed on the UN list of Non-Self-Governing Territories with Spain as administering Power.[1][2] In August 1974 Spain announced a self-determination referendum for 1975, then postponed it when the General Assembly asked the International Court of Justice for an advisory opinion.[3]

The crisis of 1975

On 16 October 1975 the Court found ties of allegiance and certain rights linking the Territory with Morocco and the Mauritanian entity, but no tie of territorial sovereignty, and nothing that would affect the application of self-determination.[4] In November a Moroccan march into the Territory went ahead despite the Security Council’s appeal; the Council deplored it and called for the marchers’ withdrawal.[5][6]

On 14 November 1975 Spain, Morocco and Mauritania agreed in Madrid to transfer Spain’s administration to a temporary tripartite administration.[7] Morocco and Mauritania claimed the Territory; the Frente POLISARIO opposed them, and armed conflict followed.[8][9]

· Legal decision

ICJ advisory opinion on Western Sahara, 1975

The International Court of Justice found ties of allegiance and rights between the Territory and Morocco and the Mauritanian entity, but no tie of territorial sovereignty.

· Other

Green March, 1975

A Moroccan march into Western Sahara went ahead despite the Security Council’s appeal to halt it; the Council deplored it and called for the participants’ withdrawal.

· Agreement

Madrid Agreement on Western Sahara, 1975

Spain, Morocco and Mauritania agreed that Spain’s administration would pass to a temporary tripartite administration and that Spain would leave by February 1976.

Administration in fact after 1976

On 26 February 1976 Spain ended its presence and disclaimed further international responsibility, while stating that decolonisation would culminate only when the population’s views had been validly expressed.[10] The UN Legal Counsel later described the Territory as left in fact under Moroccan and Mauritanian administration, and under Morocco alone after Mauritania withdrew in 1979; Morocco has never been listed as administering Power.[11][12]

A “Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic” was proclaimed in 1976 and was admitted to the Organization of African Unity in 1982. Morocco rejoined the African Union in 2017.[13][14]

The settlement plan and the referendum that was not held

Morocco and the Frente POLISARIO accepted UN–OAU settlement proposals in August 1988, and in April 1991 the Security Council established MINURSO to organise a self-determination referendum.[15][16] A ceasefire took hold from September 1991.[17]

The referendum, due in January 1992, has never been held because of fundamental disagreements between the parties; voter identification began in 1994 and was suspended in 1996.[18]

· International resolution

MINURSO and the settlement plan, 1991

The Security Council created a mission to organise a self-determination referendum; a ceasefire took effect, but the referendum was never held.

Competing proposals, 2007–2019

At the Security Council’s request both sides set out proposals in 2007. Morocco offered an autonomous Sahara region within its sovereignty, with an autonomy statute to be put to a referendum; the Frente POLISARIO called for a referendum offering independence, integration or self-governance.[19][20][21] UN-sponsored talks in 2007–2010 produced no movement on core issues.[19]

Renewed hostilities and shifting positions, 2020–2025

In November 2020 the Frente POLISARIO withdrew from the ceasefire and announced a return to armed struggle.[17] The following month a US proclamation recognised Moroccan sovereignty over the whole Territory, a position reaffirmed in 2025.[22][23]

Other governments moved towards Morocco’s proposal without all recognising its sovereignty: the United Kingdom called the plan the most credible basis for a solution in 2025, and France supports it as the only basis, while Colombia reinstated its recognition of the SADR in 2022.[24][25] In 2024 the Court of Justice of the European Union held that trade agreements with Morocco had been concluded without the consent of the people of Western Sahara.[26]

The Secretary-General reported continuing low-intensity hostilities in 2024–2025.[27] Sahrawi refugees remained in five camps near Tindouf after 50 years of displacement, most of them food-insecure, and the UN human rights office had not been given access to the Territory since 2015.[28][29][30]

Negotiations on the basis of autonomy, 2025–2026

On 31 October 2025 the Security Council backed negotiations “taking as basis Morocco’s Autonomy Proposal” towards a solution that provides for the self-determination of the people of Western Sahara, calling genuine autonomy under Moroccan sovereignty a most feasible solution.[31] The resolution passed with 11 votes, three abstentions and Algeria not voting; the General Assembly adopted its annual resolution on the question without a vote in December.[32][33]

In February 2026 US-convened talks in Madrid and Washington brought Morocco, the Frente POLISARIO, Algeria and Mauritania together, according to an independent monitor citing media reports; no official results were announced.[34] The Council discussed a strategic review of MINURSO on 23 April 2026.[35]

How the question is framed

The positions diverge at the root. The Frente POLISARIO treats the question as unfinished decolonisation to be settled by a referendum including independence; Morocco treats autonomy under its sovereignty as the end point.[21][36][37] UN bodies continue to list the Territory as non-self-governing and to speak of self-determination, while the Security Council has since 2025 taken Morocco’s proposal as the basis for talks.[12][31]

Sources for this page

Each number marks a specific claim. Notes give the source, its locator and how it relates to the claim.

  1. 1.

    Claim: Western Sahara is a Territory on the north-west coast of Africa.

    • United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara, MINURSO: Background (United Nations) link, para. 1. Source record
  2. 2.

    Claim: Spanish Sahara was a Spanish protectorate from 1884 and was included in the UN list of Non-Self-Governing Territories in 1963, with Spain as administering Power.

    • United Nations Office of Legal Affairs, Letter dated 29 January 2002 from the Under-Secretary-General for Legal Affairs, the Legal Counsel, addressed to the President of the Security Council (United Nations, 12 February 2002) link, para. 5, p. 2. Source record
  3. 3.

    Claim: In August 1974 Spain announced a self-determination referendum for the first half of 1975, but postponed it when the General Assembly asked the International Court of Justice for an advisory opinion. Attributed to Government of Spain (1976)

    • Permanent Mission of Spain to the United Nations, Letter dated 26 February 1976 from the Permanent Representative of Spain to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary-General (United Nations, 26 February 1976) link, pp. 1–2. Government perspective or primary official source Source record
  4. 4.

    Claim: In its advisory opinion of 16 October 1975 the International Court of Justice found that Western Sahara was not terra nullius at the time of Spanish colonisation and that there were legal ties of allegiance between the Sultan of Morocco and some tribes, and certain rights linking the Mauritanian entity and the territory, but no tie of territorial sovereignty with either, and no legal ties of a nature that might affect the application of resolution 1514 (XV) and the principle of self-determination.

    • International Court of Justice, Western Sahara: advisory opinion (case overview) (International Court of Justice) link, case overview. Source record
  5. 5.

    Claim: On 6 November 1975 the Security Council asked King Hassan II to end the declared march into Western Sahara at once and, in resolution 380, deplored the holding of the march and called on Morocco to withdraw all its participants.

    • United Nations Security Council, Security Council resolution 380 (1975) and the Council’s appeal of 6 November 1975 (United Nations, 6 November 1975) link, decision of 6 November 1975 and resolution 380, paras. 1–2. Source record
  6. 6.

    Claim: Morocco commemorates the march each 6 November as the Green March; the forty-ninth anniversary was marked on 6 November 2024.

    • United Nations Secretary-General, Situation concerning Western Sahara: report of the Secretary-General (United Nations, 30 September 2025) link, para. 6, p. 2. Source record
  7. 7.

    Claim: Under a Declaration of Principles concluded in Madrid on 14 November 1975 by Spain, Morocco and Mauritania, Spain’s powers as administering Power were transferred to a temporary tripartite administration and the Spanish presence was to end by 28 February 1976; the UN Legal Counsel concluded in 2002 that it transferred neither sovereignty nor the status of administering Power, and did not affect the Territory’s status as a Non-Self-Governing Territory. Attributed to UN Legal Counsel (2002)

    • United Nations Office of Legal Affairs, Letter dated 29 January 2002 from the Under-Secretary-General for Legal Affairs, the Legal Counsel, addressed to the President of the Security Council (United Nations, 12 February 2002) link, para. 6, p. 2. Source record
    • Permanent Mission of Spain to the United Nations, Letter dated 26 February 1976 from the Permanent Representative of Spain to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary-General (United Nations, 26 February 1976) link, p. 2. Government perspective or primary official source Source record
  8. 8.

    Claim: Morocco and Mauritania claimed the Territory, a claim opposed by the Frente POLISARIO, a Sahrawi liberation movement; after the Madrid Accords an armed conflict broke out between the Frente POLISARIO and the two states.

    • United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara, MINURSO: Background (United Nations) link, para. 1. Source record
  9. 9.

    Claim: The movement’s full name is Frente Popular para la Liberación de Saguía el-Hamra y de Río de Oro (Frente POLISARIO).

    • United Nations Secretary-General, Situation concerning Western Sahara: report of the Secretary-General (United Nations, 30 September 2025) link, para. 2, p. 1. Source record
  10. 10.

    Claim: On 26 February 1976 Spain told the Secretary-General that it had definitively ended its presence in the Territory, considered itself exempt from any international responsibility for its administration, and that decolonisation would culminate when the views of the Saharan population had been validly expressed.

    • Permanent Mission of Spain to the United Nations, Letter dated 26 February 1976 from the Permanent Representative of Spain to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary-General (United Nations, 26 February 1976) link, pp. 2–3. Government perspective or primary official source Source record
  11. 11.

    Claim: The UN Legal Counsel states that Spain’s departure left the Territory in fact under Moroccan and Mauritanian administration in their respective areas, and that after Mauritania withdrew in 1979 under an agreement with the Frente POLISARIO, Morocco administered the Territory alone. Attributed to UN Legal Counsel (2002)

    • United Nations Office of Legal Affairs, Letter dated 29 January 2002 from the Under-Secretary-General for Legal Affairs, the Legal Counsel, addressed to the President of the Security Council (United Nations, 12 February 2002) link, para. 7, p. 2. Source record
    • United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara, MINURSO: Background (United Nations) link, para. 1. Source record
  12. 12.

    Claim: Morocco is not listed as the administering Power of the Territory in the UN list of Non-Self-Governing Territories and has not transmitted information on it under Article 73 e of the Charter.

    • United Nations Office of Legal Affairs, Letter dated 29 January 2002 from the Under-Secretary-General for Legal Affairs, the Legal Counsel, addressed to the President of the Security Council (United Nations, 12 February 2002) link, para. 7, p. 2. Source record
  13. 13.

    Claim: The “Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic” was proclaimed in 1976; the Frente POLISARIO’s Secretary-General marked the forty-ninth anniversary of the proclamation on 26 February 2025.

    • United Nations Secretary-General, Situation concerning Western Sahara: report of the Secretary-General (United Nations, 30 September 2025) link, para. 7, p. 2. Source record The year is derived from the forty-ninth anniversary in 2025.
  14. 14.

    Claim: The African Union lists the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic as having joined the OAU on 22 February 1982, and Morocco as a member since 1963 that rejoined on 31 January 2017.

    • African Union, Member States of the African Union (African Union) link, Northern Africa table. Source record
  15. 15.

    Claim: Morocco and the Frente POLISARIO accepted UN–OAU settlement proposals on 30 August 1988.

    • United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara, MINURSO: Background (United Nations) link, para. 3. Source record
    • United Nations Security Council, Security Council resolution 690 (1991) (United Nations, 29 April 1991) link, preamble. Source record
  16. 16.

    Claim: On 29 April 1991 the Security Council unanimously established the UN Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara (MINURSO) to organise and supervise, with the OAU, a referendum for self-determination of the people of Western Sahara.

    • United Nations Security Council, Security Council resolution 690 (1991) (United Nations, 29 April 1991) link, paras. 2 and 4. Source record
  17. 17.

    Claim: The ceasefire generally held from MINURSO’s deployment in September 1991 until November 2020, when the Frente POLISARIO announced its withdrawal from it and said it was resuming armed struggle.

    • United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara, MINURSO: Background (United Nations) link, para. 8. Source record
  18. 18.

    Claim: The referendum was due in January 1992 but, because of fundamental disagreements between the parties, it has never been held; voter identification began in 1994, was suspended in 1996, and the Identification Commission formally ended its work in 2004.

    • United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara, MINURSO: Background (United Nations) link, paras. 4–5. Source record
  19. 19.

    Claim: In 2006 the Security Council asked the parties to put forward their own proposals; both did so in 2007, and UN-sponsored talks in 2007–2008 and informal meetings in 2009–2010 produced no movement on core issues.

    • United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara, MINURSO: Background (United Nations) link, paras. 6–7. Source record
  20. 20.

    Claim: Morocco’s 2007 initiative proposed an autonomous Sahara region with its own legislative, executive and judicial bodies, within the framework of the Kingdom’s sovereignty, with the State keeping defence, external relations, the flag and currency, and an autonomy statute to be put to the populations concerned in a referendum. Attributed to Kingdom of Morocco (2007)

    • Kingdom of Morocco, Moroccan initiative for negotiating an autonomy statute for the Sahara region (United Nations, 13 April 2007) link, paras. 2, 5–6, 8 and 14. Government perspective or primary official source Source record
  21. 21.

    Claim: The Frente POLISARIO’s 2007 proposal called for a self-determination referendum offering independence, integration into Morocco or self-governance, and offered post-referendum guarantees to Morocco and Moroccan residents if the result were independence. Attributed to Frente POLISARIO (2007)

    • Frente POLISARIO, Proposal of the Frente Polisario for a mutually acceptable political solution that provides for the self-determination of the people of Western Sahara (United Nations, 16 April 2007) link, paras. 7–9. Movement organisation perspective Source record
  22. 22.

    Claim: By a proclamation dated 4 December 2020, the United States recognised Moroccan sovereignty over the entire Western Sahara territory, called Morocco’s autonomy proposal the only basis for a solution and said an independent Sahrawi state was not a realistic option. Attributed to Government of the United States (2020)

    • President of the United States, Proclamation 10126 of December 4, 2020: Recognizing the Sovereignty of the Kingdom of Morocco Over the Western Sahara (Federal Register, vol. 85, no. 241, 15 December 2020) link, 85 FR 81329. Government perspective or primary official source Source record
  23. 23.

    Claim: In April 2025 the US Secretary of State reiterated US recognition of Moroccan sovereignty over Western Sahara. Attributed to Government of the United States, as reported by the UN Secretary-General

    • United Nations Secretary-General, Situation concerning Western Sahara: report of the Secretary-General (United Nations, 30 September 2025) link, para. 8, p. 2. Source record
  24. 24.

    Claim: On 1 June 2025 the United Kingdom called Morocco’s autonomy plan the “most credible, viable and pragmatic basis” for a lasting resolution; the “Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic” noted that the UK had not recognised Moroccan sovereignty. Attributed to Government of the United Kingdom and the “Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic”, as reported by the UN Secretary-General

    • United Nations Secretary-General, Situation concerning Western Sahara: report of the Secretary-General (United Nations, 30 September 2025) link, para. 9, p. 2. Source record
  25. 25.

    Claim: Security Council Report noted in April 2026 that France supports the autonomy plan as the “only basis” for a solution, that Bahrain, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Liberia support Moroccan sovereignty and have opened consulates in the Territory, and that Colombia reinstated its recognition of the SADR in 2022. Attributed to Security Council Report (April 2026)

    • Security Council Report, Western Sahara, April 2026 Monthly Forecast (Security Council Report, 1 April 2026) link, Council dynamics section. Source record
  26. 26.

    Claim: On 4 October 2024 the Court of Justice of the European Union found that EU–Morocco fisheries and agriculture agreements of 2019 had been concluded unlawfully because the people of Western Sahara had not consented to them; Morocco said it did not consider itself concerned by the decision.

    • United Nations Secretary-General, Situation concerning Western Sahara: report of the Secretary-General (United Nations, 30 September 2025) link, paras. 3–4, pp. 1–2. Source record
  27. 27.

    Claim: The Secretary-General described the situation in 2024–2025 as one of tensions and low-intensity hostilities between Morocco and the Frente POLISARIO, with reported firing at Moroccan positions near the berm and alleged Moroccan drone strikes east of it.

    • United Nations Secretary-General, Situation concerning Western Sahara: report of the Secretary-General (United Nations, 30 September 2025) link, paras. 2 and 13, pp. 1 and 3. Source record
  28. 28.

    Claim: Sahrawi refugees live in five camps near Tindouf, Algeria, and after 50 years of displacement remain dependent on humanitarian aid.

    • United Nations Secretary-General, Situation concerning Western Sahara: report of the Secretary-General (United Nations, 30 September 2025) link, paras. 64 and 86, pp. 10 and 13. Source record
  29. 29.

    Claim: The World Food Programme provides food assistance to address the approximately 80 per cent of the Sahrawi refugee population who are food-insecure. Attributed to UN Secretariat

    • United Nations Secretariat, Western Sahara: working paper prepared by the Secretariat (United Nations, 13 January 2026) link, para. 25, p. 4. Source record
  30. 30.

    Claim: The UN human rights office has not been granted access to the Territory since 2015, which the UN says prevents a comprehensive assessment of the human rights situation.

    • United Nations Secretariat, Western Sahara: working paper prepared by the Secretariat (United Nations, 13 January 2026) link, para. 27, p. 4. Source record
  31. 31.

    Claim: On 31 October 2025 the Security Council extended MINURSO to 31 October 2026 and backed negotiations “taking as basis Morocco’s Autonomy Proposal” towards a final solution “that provides for the self-determination of the people of Western Sahara”, stating that genuine autonomy under Moroccan sovereignty could constitute a most feasible solution.

    • United Nations Security Council, Security Council resolution 2797 (2025) (United Nations, 31 October 2025) link, preamble and paras. 1–3. Source record
  32. 32.

    Claim: Resolution 2797 was adopted by 11 votes, with China, Pakistan and Russia abstaining and Algeria not voting.

    • Security Council Report, Western Sahara, April 2026 Monthly Forecast (Security Council Report, 1 April 2026) link, recent developments section. Source record
  33. 33.

    Claim: On 5 December 2025 the General Assembly adopted resolution 80/89 on the question of Western Sahara without a vote.

    • United Nations Secretariat, Western Sahara: working paper prepared by the Secretariat (United Nations, 13 January 2026) link, para. 42, p. 6. Source record
  34. 34.

    Claim: Security Council Report stated that, according to media reports, the United States convened Algeria, Mauritania, Morocco and the Frente POLISARIO for talks in Madrid in early February 2026, co-chaired by the Personal Envoy and the first time since 2019 that all four had met in person, followed by talks in Washington on 23–24 February; Morocco reportedly presented a revised autonomy proposal, and no official results had been reported. Attributed to Security Council Report (April 2026)

    • Security Council Report, Western Sahara, April 2026 Monthly Forecast (Security Council Report, 1 April 2026) link, recent developments section. Source record
  35. 35.

    Claim: On 23 April 2026 Council members held closed consultations on MINURSO, including a briefing on the strategic review of the mission’s future requested in resolution 2797.

    • Security Council Report, Status Update since our April Forecast, May 2026 Monthly Forecast (Security Council Report, 1 May 2026) link, Western Sahara entry. Source record
    • United Nations Security Council, Security Council resolution 2797 (2025) (United Nations, 31 October 2025) link, para. 5. Source record
  36. 36.

    Claim: In 2025 the Frente POLISARIO described a consensual solution as one recognising the Sahrawi people’s right to self-determination and independence, and called Moroccan economic activity in the Territory unlawful. Attributed to Frente POLISARIO, as reported by the UN Secretary-General

    • United Nations Secretary-General, Situation concerning Western Sahara: report of the Secretary-General (United Nations, 30 September 2025) link, paras. 11–12, p. 3. Source record
  37. 37.

    Claim: Morocco’s foreign minister has described autonomy under Moroccan sovereignty as the “end game, not the starting point” of the process, and King Mohammed VI spoke in 2025 of seeking a consensual solution “with neither winner nor loser”. Attributed to Government of Morocco, as reported by the UN Secretariat

    • United Nations Secretariat, Western Sahara: working paper prepared by the Secretariat (United Nations, 13 January 2026) link, paras. 10 and 14, pp. 2–3. Source record

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