Independence movements

History of Kurdish self-government and independence politics in Iraq

From the 1922 Kingdom of Kurdistan and Barzani’s revolts to self-rule in 1992, federal recognition in 2005 and the 2017 referendum.

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Early claims and the Barzani revolts

In 1922 Sheikh Mahmud Barzanji declared a “Kingdom of Kurdistan” around Sulaimaniyah; British forces ended it.[1] Mustafa Barzani commanded the armed force of the 1946 Kurdish Republic of Mahabad in Iran before going into Soviet exile.[2][3]

Accounts of the Kurdistan Democratic Party’s origins differ: the BBC says Barzani formed it in 1946 to fight for autonomy in Iraq, while ICDS says a KDP first formed in Iranian Kurdistan that year and elected Barzani its president in exile in 1953.[4] After returning in 1958, Barzani led revolts; the longest, from 1961, ended with a 1970 autonomy agreement that collapsed in 1974.[5] A faction then broke away to form the PUK.[6]

· Declaration

Kurdish Republic of Mahabad, 1946

A Kurdish republic proclaimed in Soviet-occupied north-western Iran collapsed within a year after Soviet withdrawal.

Arabisation and the 1988 campaign

From the late 1970s the Iraqi government settled Arabs in Kurdish-majority areas around Kirkuk and forcibly relocated Kurds; in 1988 its campaign against the Kurds included the chemical attack on Halabja.[7]

Self-rule from 1991

After the uprising of March 1991 and the no-fly zone imposed by the US, UK and France, the Iraqi government withdrew its administration.[8] The Kurdistan Front held elections on 19 May 1992, creating a regional assembly and the Kurdistan Regional Government, and presented the vote as proof that the people of Kurdistan in Iraq could govern themselves.[9][10]

A civil war between the two main parties broke out in 1994 and ended with the 1998 Washington Peace Agreement.[11]

· Election

Kurdistan regional election, 1992

After the 1991 uprising and the Iraqi administration’s withdrawal, the Kurdistan Front held elections that created a regional assembly and government.

A federal region under the 2005 Constitution

Iraq’s 2005 Constitution defines Iraq as a single federal state and recognises the region of Kurdistan and its existing authorities as a federal region, keeping regional laws made since 1992 in force.[12][13] Kurdish became an official language of Iraq.[14] A referendum on Kirkuk and other disputed territories was due by 2007 but had not been held by 2017.[15] An unofficial vote in 2005 recorded 98.88% support for independence.[16]

The 2017 independence referendum

On 25 September 2017 the regional authorities held a referendum on independence in the Kurdistan Region and some disputed areas, including Kirkuk.[17][18] The regional commission reported 92.73 per cent support.[19] Masoud Barzani described the result as a mandate for negotiation with Baghdad.[20]

Baghdad called the vote unconstitutional, its parliament declared it null and void, and flights to the region’s airports were suspended; most foreign governments backed Iraq’s unity.[21][22] The BBC reports that federal forces retook disputed areas including Kirkuk the following month and that Barzani stepped down as regional president.[23] On 20 November 2017 the federal Supreme Court ruled the referendum unconstitutional and cancelled its results; the KRG said it respected the ruling but could not annul the vote.[24][25]

Regional politics since 2018

Disputes over the disputed areas and border crossings continued after the referendum.[26] At the October 2024 parliamentary election no party won a majority, and the new parliament first met in December 2024.[27][28] In June 2026 the formation of a new cabinet was still stalled by KDP–PUK disputes, and in August a KDP official reported progress in talks.[29][30]

In 2026, reporting described Iranian strikes on exiled Iranian Kurdish groups based in the region and pressure on Iraq to implement a 2023 agreement to disarm them.[31][32]

Sources for this page

Each number marks a specific claim. Notes give the source, its locator and how it relates to the claim.

  1. 1.

    Claim: In 1922 in and around Sulaimaniyah, Sheikh Mahmud Barzanji, who had been working with the British administration, declared a “Kingdom of Kurdistan”, which was not recognised and was ended by British intervention. Attributed to International Centre for Defence and Security (2017)

    • International Centre for Defence and Security, A Hundred Years of Attempts to Create an Independent Kurdistan (International Centre for Defence and Security (Tallinn), 19 December 2017) link, section on Sheikh Mahmut Barzanji. Source record
  2. 2.

    Claim: Qazi Muhammad announced the formation of the Kurdish Republic of Mahabad on 22 January 1946, a republic declared “within the limits of the Iranian state” in Soviet-controlled north-western Iran, and invited Mustafa Barzani of Iraq to form its armed force. Attributed to International Centre for Defence and Security (2017)

    • International Centre for Defence and Security, A Hundred Years of Attempts to Create an Independent Kurdistan (International Centre for Defence and Security (Tallinn), 19 December 2017) link, section on the Republic of Mahabad. Source record
  3. 3.

    Claim: After Soviet forces withdrew from north-western Iran in 1946, Iran reasserted control and the republic was destroyed; Qazi Muhammad was hanged in Mahabad on 31 March 1947, and Barzani and his fighters escaped to the Soviet Union. Attributed to International Centre for Defence and Security (2017)

    • International Centre for Defence and Security, A Hundred Years of Attempts to Create an Independent Kurdistan (International Centre for Defence and Security (Tallinn), 19 December 2017) link, section on the Republic of Mahabad. Source record
  4. 4.

    Claim: The BBC states that Mustafa Barzani formed the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP) in 1946 to fight for autonomy in Iraq; ICDS writes that a KDP was first formed in Iranian Kurdistan in 1946, established itself in Iraqi Kurdistan the same year, and elected Barzani its president in exile in 1953. Disputed — see the text for the competing accounts

    • BBC News, Who are the Kurds? (BBC, First published 21 October 2014; updated 15 October 2019) link, section on Iraq. Source record
    • International Centre for Defence and Security, A Hundred Years of Attempts to Create an Independent Kurdistan (International Centre for Defence and Security (Tallinn), 19 December 2017) link, note 5. Source record
  5. 5.

    Claim: Mustafa Barzani returned to Iraq in 1958 and led revolts against Iraqi governments; the longest began in 1961 and ended with an autonomy agreement in 1970, which collapsed in 1974.

    • International Centre for Defence and Security, A Hundred Years of Attempts to Create an Independent Kurdistan (International Centre for Defence and Security (Tallinn), 19 December 2017) link, section on the Molla Mustafa Barzani movement. Source record
    • BBC News, Who are the Kurds? (BBC, First published 21 October 2014; updated 15 October 2019) link, section on Iraq. Source record
  6. 6.

    Claim: After the failure of the last rebellion in the 1970s, the Talabani–Ahmad faction left the KDP and formed the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK). Attributed to International Centre for Defence and Security (2017)

    • International Centre for Defence and Security, A Hundred Years of Attempts to Create an Independent Kurdistan (International Centre for Defence and Security (Tallinn), 19 December 2017) link, section on the Molla Mustafa Barzani movement. Source record
  7. 7.

    Claim: From the late 1970s the Iraqi government settled Arabs in Kurdish-majority areas, particularly around Kirkuk, and forcibly relocated Kurds; in 1988 its campaign against the Kurds included the chemical attack on Halabja. Attributed to BBC News (2019)

    • BBC News, Who are the Kurds? (BBC, First published 21 October 2014; updated 15 October 2019) link, section on Iraq. Source record
  8. 8.

    Claim: After the Kurdish uprising of March 1991 and the no-fly zone imposed by the US, UK and France, the Iraqi government withdrew its administration from the region; the Kurdistan Front suspended talks with Baghdad in January 1992. Attributed to Kurdistan Parliament

    • Kurdistan Parliament – Iraq, History of Parliament (Kurdistan Parliament) link, paras. 1–4 and note 1. Government perspective or primary official source Source record
  9. 9.

    Claim: On 19 May 1992 the Kurdistan Front held regional elections under Law No. 1 of 1992; the elected Kurdistan National Assembly had convened by 15 July 1992 and the Kurdistan Regional Government was established.

    • Kurdistan Parliament – Iraq, History of Parliament (Kurdistan Parliament) link, paras. 5–13. Government perspective or primary official source Source record
  10. 10.

    Claim: The 1992 Election Law presented the elections as, among other things, a demonstration that the people of Kurdistan in Iraq were capable of self-government and a way to establish an authority to determine the relationship with the central government. Attributed to Kurdistan Front, Law No. 1 of 1992 (as summarised by the Kurdistan Parliament)

    • Kurdistan Parliament – Iraq, History of Parliament (Kurdistan Parliament) link, paras. 6–11. Government perspective or primary official source Source record
  11. 11.

    Claim: A civil war between the two main Kurdish parties broke out in 1994 and lasted four years; the parliament later ratified the 1998 Washington Peace Agreement.

    • Kurdistan Parliament – Iraq, History of Parliament (Kurdistan Parliament) link, section on the civil war and the Washington Peace Agreement. Government perspective or primary official source Source record
  12. 12.

    Claim: Iraq’s 2005 Constitution defines Iraq as a single federal state and, on coming into force, recognises the region of Kurdistan and its existing authorities as a federal region.

    • Republic of Iraq, Iraq’s Constitution of 2005 (Constitute Project, 2005) link, arts. 1 and 117. Government perspective or primary official source Source record
  13. 13.

    Claim: Regions may exercise executive, legislative and judicial powers except for the federal government’s exclusive powers, and legislation enacted in the region of Kurdistan since 1992 remains in force unless it contradicts the Constitution.

    • Republic of Iraq, Iraq’s Constitution of 2005 (Constitute Project, 2005) link, arts. 121 and 141. Government perspective or primary official source Source record
  14. 14.

    Claim: Arabic and Kurdish are the two official languages of Iraq.

    • Republic of Iraq, Iraq’s Constitution of 2005 (Constitute Project, 2005) link, art. 4. Government perspective or primary official source Source record
  15. 15.

    Claim: Article 140 required normalisation, a census and a referendum in Kirkuk and other disputed territories by 31 December 2007; in July 2017 Iraq’s prime minister said it had not yet been implemented.

    • Republic of Iraq, Iraq’s Constitution of 2005 (Constitute Project, 2005) link, art. 140. Government perspective or primary official source Source record
    • United Nations Secretary-General, Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to resolution 2367 (2017) (United Nations, 19 October 2017) link, para. 9, p. 2. Source record
  16. 16.

    Claim: ICDS reports that an unofficial referendum on independence organised in January 2005 recorded 98.88% support. Attributed to International Centre for Defence and Security (2017)

    • International Centre for Defence and Security, A Hundred Years of Attempts to Create an Independent Kurdistan (International Centre for Defence and Security (Tallinn), 19 December 2017) link, section on the 2017 referendum. Source record
  17. 17.

    Claim: On 25 September 2017 a unilaterally declared referendum on independence was held in the Kurdistan region of Iraq and in some disputed areas outside it, including Kirkuk Governorate.

    • United Nations Secretary-General, Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to resolution 2367 (2017) (United Nations, 19 October 2017) link, para. 2, p. 1. Source record
  18. 18.

    Claim: The UN translation of the question was: “Do you agree to the independence of the Kurdistan region and the Kurdistani areas (disputed areas) outside the administration of the region, and the establishment of an independent State?”

    • United Nations Secretary-General, Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to resolution 2367 (2017) (United Nations, 19 October 2017) link, para. 2, p. 1. Source record
  19. 19.

    Claim: According to the Kurdistan Independent High Electoral and Referendum Commission, 92.73 per cent of the 3,085,935 voters backed independence. Attributed to Kurdistan Independent High Electoral and Referendum Commission, as reported by the UN Secretary-General

    • United Nations Secretary-General, Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to resolution 2367 (2017) (United Nations, 19 October 2017) link, para. 4, p. 1. Source record
  20. 20.

    Claim: Kurdistan Region President Masoud Barzani said the vote was meant not to impose a fait accompli or draw borders but to give a mandate for negotiations with Baghdad; he had described Iraqi Kurds as having a legitimate right to self-determination and articulated a vision of an independent Kurdistan. Attributed to Masoud Barzani, as reported by the UN Secretary-General

    • United Nations Secretary-General, Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to resolution 2367 (2017) (United Nations, 19 October 2017) link, paras. 3 and 12, pp. 1 and 3. Source record
  21. 21.

    Claim: Iraq’s prime minister called the referendum illegal and unconstitutional; on 27 September 2017 the Council of Representatives declared it unconstitutional, null and void, and the federal government suspended international flights to Erbil and Sulaymaniyah airports.

    • United Nations Secretary-General, Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to resolution 2367 (2017) (United Nations, 19 October 2017) link, paras. 5–7, p. 2. Source record
  22. 22.

    Claim: Most international statements expressed disappointment that the referendum had been held, said it lacked legitimacy and supported Iraq’s unity and territorial integrity; on 21 September the Security Council had expressed concern about its potentially destabilising impact.

    • United Nations Secretary-General, Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to resolution 2367 (2017) (United Nations, 19 October 2017) link, paras. 8 and 14, pp. 2–3. Source record
  23. 23.

    Claim: The BBC reports that the month after the referendum Iraqi pro-government forces retook the disputed territory held by the Kurds, including Kirkuk, and that Masoud Barzani then stepped down as regional president; the post stayed vacant until Nechirvan Barzani succeeded him in June 2019. Attributed to BBC News (2019)

    • BBC News, Who are the Kurds? (BBC, First published 21 October 2014; updated 15 October 2019) link, section on Iraq. Source record
  24. 24.

    Claim: On 20 November 2017 Iraq’s federal Supreme Court ruled the referendum unconstitutional and cancelled its results.

    • United Nations Secretary-General, Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to resolution 2367 (2017) (United Nations, 17 January 2018) link, paras. 19 and 36, pp. 4 and 8. Source record
  25. 25.

    Claim: The Kurdistan Regional Government affirmed its respect for the Constitution and the ruling but said annulling the results was beyond its powers because they expressed the will of the Kurdish people. Attributed to Kurdistan Regional Government, as reported by the UN Secretary-General

    • United Nations Secretary-General, Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to resolution 2367 (2017) (United Nations, 17 January 2018) link, para. 20, p. 4. Source record
  26. 26.

    Claim: In early 2018 control over the disputed areas and border crossings remained a source of tension between Baghdad and Erbil.

    • United Nations Secretary-General, Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to resolution 2367 (2017) (United Nations, 17 January 2018) link, paras. 19 and 21, p. 4. Source record
  27. 27.

    Claim: At the Kurdistan Parliament election of 20 October 2024 the KDP won 39 seats, the PUK 23, the New Generation Movement 15 and the Kurdistan Islamic Union seven, with no party holding a majority.

    • Shafaq News, Kurdistan’s 10th cabinet: Interlocking alliances and persistent political differences (Shafaq News, 7 June 2026) link, article text. Source record
  28. 28.

    Claim: The sixth term of the Kurdistan Parliament held its first session on 2 December 2024.

    • Kurdistan Parliament – Iraq, پەرلەمانی کوردستان (Kurdistan Parliament, Sorani home page) (Kurdistan Parliament) link, news item on the first session of the sixth term. Government perspective or primary official source Source record
  29. 29.

    Claim: In June 2026, more than a year and a half after the election, the formation of the tenth KRG cabinet remained stalled by disputes between the KDP and the PUK over power-sharing.

    • Shafaq News, Kurdistan’s 10th cabinet: Interlocking alliances and persistent political differences (Shafaq News, 7 June 2026) link, opening paragraphs. Source record
  30. 30.

    Claim: On 16 August 2026 a senior KDP official said talks with the PUK had made “solid progress” towards forming the next cabinet and reactivating the parliament. Attributed to Ali Hussein (KDP), as reported by Kurdistan24

    • Ihsan, Mohammed, KDP, PUK Near Deal on New Kurdistan Government, Official Says (Kurdistan24, 16 August 2026) link, article text. Source record
  31. 31.

    Claim: Carnegie’s Diwan reported in July 2026 that during the war that began on 28 February 2026, Iran carried out hundreds of strikes on exiled Iranian Kurdish groups in Iraqi Kurdistan, and that seven Iranian Kurdish factions had formed an alliance in February 2026. Attributed to Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (Diwan), July 2026

    • van Wilgenburg, Wladimir, Kurdish Rebel Groups Are Wary of Tehran’s Next Move (Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (Diwan), July 2026) link, opening paragraphs. Source record
  32. 32.

    Claim: The same report states that a March 2023 security agreement calls on Iraq to disarm Iranian Kurdish parties along the border, most of which are based in areas under the Kurdistan Regional Government. Attributed to Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (Diwan), July 2026

    • van Wilgenburg, Wladimir, Kurdish Rebel Groups Are Wary of Tehran’s Next Move (Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (Diwan), July 2026) link, article text. Source record

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Printed from https://independenceatlas.com/movements/kurdistan-region-iraq/history · last substantive update 15 September 2026.